bout de papier, Vol. 18, No. 4 (2001-2002) — Winter 2001/2002, pp. 16–17
he intative by bout de papier to launch a series on Canadia
• Unity is a good one. Every year diplomats give hundreds o speeches and interviews abroad, and one topic they often have to cover is Canadian unity. We are also frequently asked about it, because our “unity problem” is of genuine concern to allies, trade partners, or potential immigrants, and it fascinates almost anyone interested in our country. This essay has a modest goal — to provide definitions and historical background for several of the most important words relevant to the unity debate. Words like country and nation are often used interchangeably and/or incorrectly, and it is often assumed that a colony can grow into either. Sovereignty is also given a confusing array of meanings. Often misuse of terms is acidental, sometimes it is deliberate. But the terms are different, and that is important for any diplomat making a speech on Canada.
What is a colony?
The word colony applies to Canada for most of its existence, technically, in fact, until 1931. A colony is a territory ruled by a colonial or imperial power, usually from across the sea. Examples are the French colony of New France (to 1763), or the 16 English colonies on the east coast of North America, 13 of which became the United States in 1783. Newfoundland was a British colony until 1949. In area, Canada was the biggest colony the world has ever seen. The colonial power might grant self-government over internal affairs to a colony, but that would not change its status. Self-government can also be taken away, as happened to Newfoundland in 1933.
What is a country?
A country is an area of land (a physical entity) whose independence is recognized by other countries. A country exchanges ambassadors or high commissioners with other countries, belongs to international bodies, issues passports, and controls borders with customs, police and armies. Examples include Canada, Great Britain, Belgium, the USSR, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Prussia and Bavaria before 1870, or Germany after 1870.
bout de papier Vol.
Canada as a country
Canada is unquestionably a country — it is internationally recognized as such, sends and receives ambassadors, and proudly waves the flag at almost every international organization and gathering. But when it became independent is a mystery to many Canadians.
The biggest myth in Canadian history is that Canada became an independent country at the time of Confederation, July 1, 1867. This is perpetuated in textbooks, the media and by government, the latter changing July first from “Dominion Day”, which was correct, to “Canada Day”. In fact, Canada has existed legally and constitutionally since the Constitutional Act divided Quebec into the colonies of Lower and Upper Canada on June 10, 1791. It is 210 years old, and its puzzling that so many people want to knock 76 years off its age. What was new in 1867 was its expansion to the Maritimes. In fact, what happened was that the three small British colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia became one big colony, also called Canada, with a number of provinces and a federal system of government. In 1867 there was no transfer of sovereignty from London to Ottawa, and British troops stayed on. Significantly, this change was effected by the British North America Act, not the Canadian North America Act.
Confederation was extremely important, and there should be a day to mark it, but it should not be confused with becoming an independent country. That formally happened on December 11, 1931, when a British Act of Parliament (The Statute of Westminster) declared that Canada (and Australia, South Africa and New Zealand) were equal in status with Great Britain, ie, independent. December I should be “Canada Day” “, and should probably be a holiday so Canadians can get a jump on their Christmas shopping.
One reason that the achievement of Canadian independence is so little understood is that it occurred peacefully and gradually;
no battles, no declarations, no peace treaty, no heroes and no statesmen. In the 1840s Britain’s North In 1914 Canada was a colony, at war the moment Great Britain declared war. In 1919 it was pushing the bounds of independence with a seat at the peace negotiations. In 1922 it refused to send troops when asked by Britain. By 1926 its independence was accepted de facto by London, and Canada was appointing and receiving ambassadors. In 1931 independence was recognized de jure (officially and technically), and in 1939 Canada was not at war when Britain declared war. We graduated from colonialism to independence on December 11, 1931, a fact diplomats should know before they speak on such issues abroad.
What is sovereignty?
Sovereignty is the state of being independent and exercising supreme authority, power or jurisdiction. Independence for a country is black and white, either it has it or it does not. Sovereignty is grey no country or government wields absolute control over its territory or people or has complete freedom from outside authority. At no time did Great Britain exercise complete sovereignty over Canada. It delegated power over a third of Canada to the Hudson’s Bay Company, and by 1931 Britain was sovereign in hardly anything other than a technical sense.
Canada became formally sovereign over all its territories in 1931, but in fact it already exercised most of the sovereignty technically still residing in Britain. But Canadian sovereignty has never been absolute. Any foreign power could occupy some territory in the far north for months without our government even knowing it. Similarly, When Canada or any other overeign country signs treaties it is surrendering some authority in return for some economic or other benefit deemed worth the swap. How much sovereignty should be traded for what economic or security benefits is the subject of daily debate and politics, in Canada as elsewhere.
What is a nation?
A nation is a group of people who see themselves as a nation because they have a common identity based on a combination of language, religion, culture, customs, history, occupation of a common piece of territory, and often subjection to a single government. Examples include the French, Russians, Danes, Hungarians, Scots, Welsh, or Basques.
The above examples indicate clearly that countries and nations are NOT necessarily the same thing. Over the centuries the borders of countries and the boundaries of land occupied by certain nations have come together. One therefore sees the French in France and the Russians in Russia. But one also sees the Scots, Welsh, English and some Irish in Great Britain, while the Basques are in both France and Spain. The Flemish and Walloon nations now co-habit a country called Belgium, but before 1830 they were in the Netherlands along with the Dutch. The Hungarians spent most of modern history in a country ruled from Vienna; the Austrians have only spent a few years in a united Germany.
Canada as a nation?
By the definition of “nation” identified above, several groups of people within the country of Canada have long fit the meaning quite clearly. They include the French Canadians or Québecois, Newfoundlanders, First Nations such as the Cree, and the Metis. Each of these groups has a language (or accent), culture, customs, and history. Equally important, each of them thinks of itself to a degree as a nation, and, to a degree, makes a point of identifying itself as distinct from other Canadians. A folk song makes it clear: “We’re Newfoundlanders, not Canadians, not by a damn sight yet….” No matter how strong provincialism or regionalism is, no province other than Quebec has that sense of identity
Fortunately, groups of people can have several identities at the same time. Thus a French Canadian could see himself as part of the Montreal community, the French Canadian nation and the Canadian nation. Indeed, many or most French Canadians do just that, though a small minority do not see themselves as Canadians. Newfoundlanders are now Canadians thank God they are also still Newfoundlanders.
A key question in Canadian history is when the rest of the people living in the colony of Canada (pre-1931) or the country of Canada (post-1931) came to see themselves as Canadians. There is no date for this, agreed or otherwise. It took place over centuries and is still happening.
In the late nineteenth century a trans-national Canadian identity was evidently developing, sharing space in people’s sentiments with French Canadian nationalism, British identity, or the national identities of other immigrant groups. This can be seen in song (O Canada, The Maple Leaf Forever) and in literature and the press. It was fueled by Confederation and the opening of the West. This new Canadian nationalism was and remains stronger in Central Canada than elsewhere — after all, Ontario and Quebec were the only provinces where money was not used to bring land or people into Confederation.
Apart from French Canadians, it is unlikely that many of the people who lived in Canada in 1914 thought of themselves as Canadians first. British Canadians rushed off to defend Great Britain because they were British in sentiment; French and ethnic-Canadians saw no reason to fight because there was no threat to Canada. Gradually the experience of total war undermined loyalty to Britain and replaced it with English Canadian nationalism. Unfortunately, English and French Canadians had opposite views on fighting the war, and conscription ripped the colony apart. Canadian nationalism also developed among other Canadians, though many of them did not share English Canada enthusiasm for the war.
Canadian nationalism has continued to develop, with people gradually identifying themselves as Canadians rather than or more than with any other identity. A number of milestones and developments stand out — the experience of World War II, the contribution to the post-war world, the adoption of the flag, the patriation of the constitution, and national achievements like hockey, peacekeeping and medicare.
Canadians unquestionably see themselves as a nation today. There are and will always be exceptions, like separatists and some new immigrants who feel a greater sense of identity with another national group. But somewhere in the last century Canadians did become a “nation” in the proper sense of the term. In some ways it is a unique and wonderful nation because of its tolerance. Unlike many other countries, there is no attempt to define nationalism exclusively in terms of religion, language, birthplace, family name, or custom. If a Newfoundlander wants to sing songs about how big a mistake it was to join Canada, well that’s fine. If an immigrant gets off the plane and says he is a Canadian, then that is good enough for us.
We may remain forever a puzzle to other peoples whose nationalism is narrowly defined or based on an emphasis on differences. We are a country and a nation, and will probably remain proudly ignorant of what those things mean or when they happened. All nations have myths, and we are also happily creating ones about when we became a country, and busily fuzzifying the meaning of sovereignty. It’s the Canadian way, but diplomats had best get it right in their speeches.
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Originally published in bout de papier, Vol. 18, No. 4 (2001-2002) — Winter 2001/2002, pp. 16–17. Read the rest of this issue →
